History
Oslo is a city whose history can be traced back over centuries. Snorre Sturlason the historian has chronicled that Oslo was founded by King Harald Hardâde in 1048. Oslo was dethroned from it’s status as capital of Norway when Norway became a part of the Danish-Norwegian union from 1348-1814. Norway achieved independence from the Danes on the 17th of May in 1814. This day is celebrated with much pomp and glory all over the country now. Independence Day is a big celebration for the people of Oslo as well. This vibrant and cosmopolitan city is also the locale for the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize every year.

Weather
The best time to visit Oslo is from May to September, the day mean temperatures at this time are pleasant and are generally are around 20C(69F) while in Oslo winters the days are short as mean day temperatures dip below 0C(20F) and there is considerable snowfall. All this makes Oslo an attractive winter sports destination. The spectacular Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis), the fire works of the sky are visible during the Oslo winters. Oslo is a popular ski destination during the winter.

Getting to Oslo

By Air
The Oslo Airport is situated 45 kilometers away from the city center. Several European as well as other international airlines and domestic carriers such as SAS Braathens call on Oslo’s airport which is situated at Gardermoen. The Airport has modern amenities such as cafes, bars, duty free shops and also a Global Refund desk. In Norway VAT is included in the sale price of an item and a foreigner is entitled to a refund of this VAT if the foreigner has spent a total of 315 kroner ( the Norwegian currency) in a single store and has obtained a Tax refund receipt. Another Airport called Torp airport is located near Sandefjord 115 kilometers from Oslo. Low cost airlines like Ryan Air, Wiz air call at Torp airport.

Oslo Cityscape

Transport from the Airport
A high speed train called Flytoget plies between Oslo’s central station and the Gardermoen airport. The train ride costs 160 Kr and the journey time is 19-20 minutes. This train is the most convenient way for a tourist to get to the heart of the city speedily. There are slower trains which cost 82 Kr which also provide connections to the airport. Flybussen is the name of the bus service to the city center from the airport these travel at a slower rate and take 45 minutes to get to the city from the airport. The Taxi service which is booked from within the airport is astronomically expensive costing from 395 Kr upwards for a journey to downtown Oslo. The Torp airport is connected to Oslo by a bus service called Torpekspressen.

By Train
Daily international train services operate from the Oslo Central Station located in the eastern part of the city. The international services operate to cities in Sweden namely Gothenburg and Stockholm. To get to Copenhagen in Denmark from Oslo one has to change trains in Gothenburg. The trains are operated by the state run NSB train company which also operates on domestic routes to neighboring cities such as Bergen and Trondheim.

By Road
The City of Oslo is served by a network of Highways. The Highway E6 is an international highway from Malmö and Gothenberg in Sweden which runs north south through Norway connecting cities. Another International Highway serving the city is E18 it links Oslo with St Petersburg, Helsinki and Stockholm. The use of these highways invites a toll of 20 kr which is used for the upkeep of the roads and highways.

Several European bus services traverse these highways to link Oslo to neighboring cities in Sweden and Denmark. Swedish companies such as Safflebussen, Lavprisekexpresen and Swebus provide inexpensive and efficient bus service to other Scandinavian cities. Euroline is another international bus service connecting Oslo to other cities in Southern Europe while Moravia Express links Oslo to cities such as Prague.

By Ferry
One can access Oslo by car ferry as well. The car ferry services are operated by various companies such as Color line, DFDS and Stena Line. Oslo is connected by car ferry to cities in Denmark, Sweden and Germany.

Getting around the city
Several car rental companies such as Avis, Hertz, Europcar are available at the Oslo airport but since Oslo is a small city finding parking can be a nightmare. Parking is expensive as well.

Oslo has an extremely efficient public transport system and information about the various modes of transport available to a tourist can be had from the Trafikanten which is located outside the Oslo central station. The Trafikanten makes available information, free maps as well as tickets for travel for the tourist. Public transport runs from the early morning hours to midnight. A variety of passes such as the Tourist Ticket valid for unlimited use on any mode of transport for a single day and the 24 hr, 48hr, and 72hr Oslo card make the use of the excellent public transportation system very convenient for a tourist. The Oslo card also enables the tourist to get free admission to museums and other discounts.

By Metro
The subway or metro of Oslo is called Tunnelbane or T-bane. It is composed of six lines and serves the city center as well as the suburbs.

By Buses and Trams
Buses and Trams supplement the subway network and serve areas not yet connected by the T-bane. Jerbanetorget is an important transport hub for the tram and bus network. Buses such as Bus 31, 34, 37 and 54 are useful buses for tourists as they cover areas of the city not covered by the T-bane.

By local commuter train
There is a local commuter train network connecting the municipality of Oslo with neighboring towns and cities.

By Ferry
The ferry service is seasonal and runs in the summer months of April to September. The Ferry links the City Hall to the museums on the island of Bygdøy.

By Taxi
Cabs in Oslo are metered and expensive. Short distances can cost upwards of 100kr. There are various cab companies operating in Oslo and they have a complicated system of surcharges for various services. Cabs can also be called but this service as in other cities of the world attracts a surcharge too.

By Bike
Oslo can be explored by a tourist by availing of the public bike service which exists in the city. It is complimentary and one can on verification of one’s hotel key at the tourist office pick up a bike for a maximum three hours at various locations in the city.

And if you happen to stay at the Hotel Viru, you would be interested to know that during the Cold War every room here was tapped and monitored by the KGB!

The origin of the name is thought to be derived from Taani-linn, meaning Danish castle. In the early 1920s the official spelling of the city name was changed from Tallinna to Tallinn.

The climate in Tallinn is characterized by a fairly cold winter, a cool spring with little precipitation, a moderately warm summer and a long and rainy autumn. The months of June to September are the best time to visit Tallinn. This is when Tallinn is at its liveliest, with festivals packing the summer calendar. To experience Tallinn without hordes of tourists, plan a trip between October and May.

Historical Overview
The city has been an important port for trade between Russia and Scandinavia, due to which it became a target for the expansion of the Teutonic Knights and Kingdom of Denmark during the Northern Crusades. Danish rule of Tallinn and Northern Estonia started in 1219 when King Waldemar II established a fortress on the site. The castle’s stone walls and sentry towers still stand tall in the city today.

In 1285, the town joined the Hanseatic League—a mercantile and military alliance of German-dominated cities in Northern Europe, and soon attained considerable commercial importance.

In 1346 the Danes sold Tallinn and some other territories to the Teutonic Knights. It was acquired by Sweden in 1561 and was annexed by Russia in 1710. With the start of the Protestant Reformation, the German influence became even stronger as the city was converted to Lutheranism.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, war and disease took heavy human and economic tolls on Tallinn. The city’s fortune reversed only in the 19th century after the Russians built railroads and developed industries in the region.

In 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed with Soviet Russia, wherein Russia acknowledged the independence of the Estonian Republic. Tallinn became the capital of an independent Estonia.

The city was occupied again by German forces in 1941. Retaken by the USSR in 1944, the city then served as the capital of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) until 1991, when an independent democratic Estonian state was re-established and a period of quick development to a modern European capital ensued.

Things to Do
The town is a jumble of medieval walls and turrets, needling spires and winding, cobbled streets. The old towns (Lower Town and Toompea) are best explored on foot; and the eastern districts around Pirita and Kadriorg are also worth visiting.

You could take your time and explore, discover and enjoy the sights or if you are in a hurry, just glance through some of the best the city has to offer.

Suggested Outings
Day 1: Old City (Toompea)
The excellently preserved Old City built in the 15-17th centuries keeps most visitors occupied during their stay. The winding, cobbled streets of the medieval capital take you past half-hidden lanes, courtyards, spired churches and old, merchant houses. the Old Town is divided into two parts: Toompea Hill, which was home to the gentry that lorded over the countryside, and Lower Town, which was a separate political entity with rights as an autonomous town.

Start your walk from Viru Gate, which is now Tallinn’s trendiest shopping spot, then head up to the Niguliste Church. It is now a museum and houses Tallinn’s most famous work of art, an enormous fragment of Bernt Notke’s 15th-century masterpiece Dance Macabre. Destroyed during World War II and rebuilt during Soviet times, the church now houses a fascinating collection of medieval religious art. The church is also known for its organ concerts held here every weekend.

Next stop is the Russian Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Cathedral built in 1894 during the period of Russian Empire. This dominating landmark is the Russian Orthodox cathedral named for the duke who attacked southeastern Estonia and Pskov in the early 13th century.

Another marvel is the Lutheran Cathedral (Toomkirik), which was originally built as a hospital in the 16th century. It has also served as a weightlifting room under the Soviets, before being returned in 1993 to the Swedish congregation.

The major attraction this side of town is the Toompea Castle built on the spot where the ancient Estonians’ wooden fortress stood before the 1219 Danish invasion. It houses the Riigikogu, Estonia’s parliament. On one corner of the castle you can see Pikk Hermann tower with the blue, black and white tricolour flag waving above it.

Day 2: Old City (Lower Town)
This area is one of the best preserved old towns in Europe. Some of the must-see sights include Raekoja plats (Town Hall square), which as a medieval market and a modern meeting place, has been the heart of city life for eight centuries. With the Town Hall behind you, you can marvel at some of the most magnificent examples of Gothic architecture in the city. Keep a look out for a circular stone in the centre of the square marked with a compass rose.
From here, if you position yourself correctly, you can see the Tallinn’s five most famous spires.

Don’t forget to take a walk along the the town walls and towers. One in particular, the Kiek in de Kok, built in 1481, is a 45 m, six-storey cannon tower that played an important role in the Livonian War and till date has nine of Ivan IV’s cannonballs embedded in its walls to prove it. Medieval soldiers used to joke that from the top of the tower, they could see right into the kitchens of the houses below - hence the odd name. The tower is now used as a city museum and gives visitors an excellent introduction to the history of Tallinn’s defenses. Three of the floors are reserved to showcase contemporary art.

Make the St Olaf church tower your next stop. The tower’s 124 m spire is a Tallinn landmark, and is said to be the tallest building in Europe in its time. Legend claims that the church was built to attract more merchant ships to the town by a mysterious craftsman. The church was named after the canonized Norwegian king, Olav Havaldsson.

Day 3: Outside the Old City
There are many sights to marvel at a leisurely pace just outside the olad city. They are as diverse as you can expect ensuring that you don’t get bored! The Museum of occupations features the life and condition of the city and its people under the Soviet and Nazi regimes.

You get to witness a totally different aspect of the region when you visit the Tallinn Zoo. It is an enormous sanctuary that holds among its live exhibits some of the world’s best collections of mountain goats and sheep.

And since it is a port town you would expect to go by the seaside. Here you can see the Museum ships Lembit and Suur Toll. This is Tallinn’s old sea-plane port home to the Maritime Museum’s ships. One of the most fascinating exhibits here is the Lembit submarine, launched in England in 1936, which served in Estonia’s navy. Its interior retains its original aura and visitors are allowed to examine the torpedo tubes and cramped bunks. The Suur Toll is the world’s largest surviving steam-powered icebreaker and, since its launch in 1914, has spent decades keeping the Baltic waterways clear.

Day 4: Kadriorg
Two kilometers east of the city centre, this former palace of Peter the Great, now houses part of the Art Museum of Estonia, and the presidential residence. You can even take a stroll in the surrounding grounds that include formal gardens and woodland.

Kadriorg is a beautiful sea-side resort with wooden buildings from the 18th to the 20th. Here you can also see the magnificent Kadriorg Palace and Garden.

The Kadriorg Palace is an imperial Russian Summer Residence built by Italian architect Niccolo Michetti. This Northern Baroque palace was built in 1718 at the request of Russian Tsar Peter the Great and is situated in a 90 ha park in the eastern part of the city. The emperor named the estate after his wife Catherine I (’Kadri’ in Estonian). The tsar himself preferred to stay in a modest house nearby. Currently the palace is home to the Kadriorg Art Museum and houses painting collections and other art. A part of the complex is nowadays occupied by the Office of the President but visitors get to see the ornate Great Hall, and the room upstairs that served as president’s office in the 1930s. Don’t miss the opportunity to take a walk in the lavishly manicured gardens.

Day 5: Pirita District

Flag of Estonia

Pirita, with forest parks, Botanical Gardens and Metsakalmistu, the last resting place of well-known Estonians, is a great way to end your trip. Walk through this coastal district just 2 km from Kadriorg and take in the balmy air. The marina here was built for the Moscow Olympics of 1980, and you can also hire boats for a trip down the Pirita River.

Keep walking and you will come to the Holy Birgitta Monastery, situated near the beach area. it is a monastery and a guest house operated by the nuns and as well as a landmark of 16th century catacombs and ruins.

Not the most romantic spot, but the Battery Prison is a must-see. It is a cannon fortress built around 1840 to protect the city from the sea-born attacks and has also served as a Soviet prison till 2004. You could take one of the jail tours, which include single and torture cells, prison meal and, of course, execution. Definitely not for the weak hearted.

For some spectacular views of the city, and even of Finland on a clear day, go to the Tallinn TV Tower, a 314 m high free-standing structure with an observation deck on the 21st floor.

End your tour at the Estonian History Museum that showcases the 19th and 20th centuries within this pseudo-Gothic palace. It has previously housed the Dutch consulate, a posh hotel, future pilots and the Soviet army, before being turned into a museum in 1975.

Getting Around
Being a port, traveling by sea is the easiest and most common way of reaching Tallinn. There are ferry shuttle routes from Helsinki. You could choose between the fast hydrofoil and a catamaran. For the jet-setters, the Tallinn Airport (or Ulemiste Airport) is just about 5 km from the city center. There are also fairly frequent bus routes that radiate out from Tallinn and serve other countries.

Within the city, you have the option of enjoying the efficient bus, trolley bus and tram networks. Taxis are of course, also available on call.

Eating Out
In Tallinn you will find several eateries serving everything from solid German-influenced Estonian dishes to delicate French cuisine with a local twist.

If you are looking for something quintessentially Estonian, try pork with sauerkraut and roast potatoes, Baltic herring, broth with dumplings and meatballs, beetroot salad, jellied veal, cottage cheese or blood pudding. Forget your cholesterol levels while you holiday here and enjoy the fare.

The city is sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean on one side and the Andes mountains on the other.  It is the second largest city in Peru, with 8 million inhabitants –that’s a whopping two thirds of the country’s population, many of who flock here in search of employment opportunities and end up in the slum colonies on the outskirts of the city.  Like many South American cities, it’s congested and polluted, and has a gaping rich-poor divide,  but a few days spent walking about Lima will open your eyes to the old world charm and beauty of this 400 year old city.  Its San Francisco convent and historic center have been declared as world heritage sites by UNSECO.

The city is a history buffs dream with its rich museums and churches and important pre Inca archaeological sites. In addition, there are excellent restaurants that showcase Peruvian cuisine, especially the seafood the country is famous for, great casinos and gambling centers, fabulous nightlife and cultural entertainment that is unparalleled in much of the region.  Plus, the people are helpful and hospitable, typical of Latin warmth and friendliness.  The concept of rain is alien to Limenos and the city enjoys warm weather all year round.

Door of the National Cathedral, Lima

Getting In
Lima is, in effect, the gateway to Peru. Its Jorge Chavez International Airport serves as a transit point to all the regions in the interior of the country and is well serviced by most international airlines to cities like Miami, Houston, Atlanta, Madrid and Amsterdam.  Once inside the airport, hire a taxi at the taxi counter to get to your accommodations.  Avoid the informal taxis outside the airport. There is an airport shuttle service available at the shuttle counter inside the terminal that ferries travelers to hotels from the airport. The Green Taxi counter at the terminal is also highly recommended.

Getting Around
The architectural splendor of downtown Lima demands that you walk around the city oohing and aahing at the colonial treasures that fill it.  If that sounds like too much exertion for someone on holiday, hire a taxi. They are really affordable and $2 should get you to an adjacent neighborhood.  For longer rides, you may have to shell out between $3 to $5. Always negotiate fares before getting into one and never get into a shared taxi. They are also buses and combis – vans crammed with up to 20 people. You can catch one at the end of a block or try stopping one at a traffic light.  They’re generally slow, so opt for a taxi if you’re in a rush.

Where to Stay
The city is a backpacker hotspot for those looking to do the Inca hiking trails and so, offers plenty of low priced lodgings. There are a number of budget hotels in the city center. If you’re looking for more comfort for your dollar, the more expensive hotels in Miraflores and San Isidro are the places to head.

Hotel espana in central Lima has dormitory beds at unbeatable rates. The Stop and Drop Lima Backpacker Hostel and Guesthouse is in the heart of Miraflores, close to where all the action is and has beds as cheap as $9. They also offer a number of adventure sport activities and Spanish language courses. Another backpacker hangout in Miraflores is the LOKI Backpackers Hostel.

The Posada del Inca Hotel in San Isidro has spacious rooms – they have a healthy occupancy rate, so book ahead. The Bellavista de Miraflores offers mid priced accommodation in the heart of the commercial and nightlife district of Lima.

The Country Club Lima Hotel is a grand structure built in the Spanish hacienda style and is stuffed with antiques and modern conveniences. The hotel is surprisingly fair priced considering the privileges – 3 restaurants and a bar, salon and access to the nearby Lima Golf Club.  Part of a successful Peruvian chain of hotels, the Libertador San Isidro Golf Hotel is boldly decorated and has a nice top floor restaurant and bar. Facilities include a Jacuzzi, gym and sauna.

Where to Eat
Peru’s capital offers a varied range of dining options from traditional seafood based Peruvian food to international cuisine.  The number one dish that no visitor should leave without trying is ceviche, pieces of raw fish marinated in lemon juice, all topped off with sliced onions. Ceviche is the national dish of Peru and is made only from the freshest fish. You’ll find cevicherias at every corner; from the beachside shack where it costs a few dollars to up market restaurants where you’ll pay many times that amount for the exact same concoction. There are also plenty of other seafood varieties that show up on Lima restaurant menus.  The prime location of the city above ocean waters means that fresh fish is not only plentiful, but the diet of plankton that’s abundant in these waters makes them extra delicious.   Besides local eateries, there are hundreds of Chinese joints as well as more expensive Japanese restaurants.  Middle Eastern food stalls are also common along Parque Kennedy. For a more upscale dining experience head to Astrid Y Gaston, which has the best collection of wines in the city or the serene El Curtejo, named after an obscure mission of monks.

The Pisco sour, made from fermented grape juice is the national drink of the Peruvians and available all over the city. Like Ceviche, it is highly recommended for a full blown Peruvian experience.  You can also try a variety of fruit juices including a mixed fruit juice called surtido.

Nightlife
The Barranco neighborhood is the center of Limas nightlife activity and boasts of a number of dance clubs and bars that come alive after dark. For sophisticated partying, head to the Costa Verde in Barranco where all the beautiful people go. In Miraflores, the younger party animals head to El Cocodrilo Verde with its scattered café tables and choice of jazz and rock and every thing in between. Some of the most crowded night time destinations on weekends are the penas, small bars that play musica criollas, a thumping medley of Peruvian and African influences. Keeping time to the beats are flashily dressed dancers and the mood is boisterous. The Freiheit Bar is a German tavern style watering hole in Miraflores and has a small dance floor.  The Son De Cuba is Caribbean themed in the choice of music and O’Murphys Irish Pub is obviously, the place to head for Guinness on tap.

The location of Chengdu is such that it facilitates access to Lè Shan, which is one of the most important breeding grounds for China’s national treasure the Giant Panda. The Pandas of whom only a thousand remain are found only in the Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces of China. More than eighty percent of the Panda population is concentrated in the Sichuan province. People from all over the world come to Chengdu to see the Giant Pandas. Changdu  is one of the economic powerhouses in China as it has a high tech industrial development zone where many an  international as well as domestic company  have a presence.  The city was the location where the world’s first paper currency was founded in 1023 during the Song dynasty. Continuing in the same vein Chengdu continues to remain a center for much financial activity as various banks and brokerage houses establish outlets in the city of Chengdu.

A shopkeeper

Climate & Best Time to Visit
Chengdu enjoys an average daily temperature of 16°C all through out the year. The ideal time to visit Chengdu is in the spring from the months of March to June and in the fall from the months of September to November. High levels of relative humidity and mist characterize the weather in Chengdu; this makes the average winter temperature of 5°C feel much colder. The weather in Chengdu is characterized by little sunshine especially in the winter months when the days are dull and grey.

Chengdu sees the celebration of a number of festivals in addition to the usual Spring Festival, National Day and International Labor Day celebrations which are celebrated all over the country. In Chengdu, the Lantern Festival is held around the time of the Spring Festival at the Qingyang palace and this festival is celebrated with much pomp and pageantry. The celebrations feature Sichuan folk opera and acrobatics. Other popular festivals, which are celebrated in Chengdu, are the Flower festival, the Dragon boat festival, the Peach meeting and the Settling water festival. These are ideal times to visit Chengdu to enjoy the festive atmosphere, which prevails in the city.

Currency
The local currency is the Renminbi, which is made up of the Chinese Yuan. The Chinese Yuan is made up of ten Jiao.

Language
The people of Chengdu speak a local Sichuan dialect, which is an adaptation of pure Mandarin Chinese.

Roadside Art Vendor

Getting to Chengdu
The city of Chengdu is served by the Chengdu Shuangli International Airport.(CTU).  T The airport  is located in the south west of the city at a distance of 20 kms from the center of the city. The city has air links with over seventy domestic destinations such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou.

The scenic tourist destination of Jiuzhaigou is accessible via a forty-minute flight from Chengdu. Chengdu also has a direct air link to Lhasa the capital of Tibet as well as an air link to Nyingchi  in south east Tibet. The latter is considered to be the best entry point into Tibet as it is located at a low altitude and has an atmosphere rich in Oxygen will helps one acclimatize to the low oxygen levels of the Tibetan Plateau. However Nyingchi is located in a valley surrounded by mountains, which are covered in low clouds. This this makes landing and takeoff at this airport a challenge. The flight to Nyingchi operates once a week on Fridays. Chengdu has direct air links to a host of international destinations such as Osaka, Seoul, Singapore, Paris and Maccau. Los Angeles, Vancouver, London and Sydney were additional destinations to which air links were opened in 2006. An airport shuttle bus operates at a frequency of twenty minutes from 5 am in the morning. The journey to the city center takes thirty-five minutes and costs CNY 8-10. Taxis are also available outside the arrival hall and a trip to the city center costs CNY 50 after bargaining with the driver.

By Train
Chengdu is a large transportation hub of southwest China. Train links exist to major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. A tourist express train links Chengdu to Guangyuan City,Yibin City and Panzihua city. Tickets for the trains can be bought at various locations in the city including the Sichuan University.

By Bus
Long distance buses operate from the several main coach stations in Chengdu. The Wangui Bridge Bus Station provides bus services to cities on the Chengdu –Chongqing expressway and he Neijiang – Yibin expressway. Gaosuntang Bus.Station is where buses depart for Lhasa in Tibet. The journey from Chengdu takes three days and two nights and costs CNY 616.

Getting around within the city
The city has a network of metered taxis which are manned by knowledgeable taxi divers. The initial flag fall for a taxi is CNY 5 for the first 3 kilometers. At night from 10 pm to 6am the taxis charge an initial flag fall of CNY 6 for the first 3 kilometers. The city is well served by a public bus system. There are two kinds of buses which ply on Chengdu’s roads the Air con and non air con buses. The Air con buses charge CNY 2 while the non-air con charge CNY 1.The bus route nos 901and 902 cater specifically to tourists as they cover most of the tourist attractions of Chengdu. The 901 Double Decker sight seeing bus departs every half hour starting from the New South Gate Tourist Distributing Center.
The 902 bus departs every 15 minutes from the New South Gate Tourist Distributing Center and ends at the Chengdu Panda breeding and research center.These tourist buses are manned by bi lingual guides and multi media systems comprising of Mobile TV sets. Pedicabs are another mode of transportation available to the tourists. The uniformed drivers charge a rate, which starts, from CNY 5. One can also rent a car in Chengdu to self-drive or elect to be driven around in a hired chauffer driven vehicle. The normal charge for a chauffer driven vehicle is CNY 50 per person for duration of 8 hours.Attractions
Xiongmao Jidi/Daxiongmao Fanzhi Zhongxin
Located at a distance of 10 km from downtown Chengdu is the Veterinary Lab, park, Giant Panda Museum and zoo. The Center covers an area of 92 acres and is involved in the conservation and breeding of other endangered species as well as the Giant Panda, which is the national symbol and treasure of China. The objective of the center is to breed the captive pandas in a stimulated habitat in order to release them into the wild eventually. Giant Pandas, red pandas, black-necked cranes and white storks are some of the rare and endangered species which are bred here throughout the year in tranquil verdant surroundings covered with fourteen species of bamboo, trees and flowers. The ideal time to spot the Pandas is between 8.30 am to 10.30 am which is the feeding time at the center. The Giant Panda museum was opened in 1993 .It has three main exhibition halls the Giant Panda Hall, The Butterfly hall and the Vertebrate Hall. It is recommended that one set aside two hours for a visit to the Giant Panda Center.

Qingyang Gong
This active Daoist monastery is the prime historical sight in Chengdu. The gate of the monastery has two bronze goats adorning it. The most important exhibit in this monastery is a pair of rare and elegant pear wood printing plates of abstracts of scriptures in the Daoist Canon. The Monastery consists of six halls, one where Daoist texts are printed lies to the east while the room for the worship of Daoist sages lies to the west. The main hall is the Hall of Three Purities while the Bagua Ting (Pavillion of Eight Trigrams) is famous for its upturned roofs, which are adorned in between the roofs by a plaque of the eight trigrams, which have patterns of swastikas. The swastikas are symbolic of the sun. The monastery has a bookshop as well as a teahouse. Next door to the monastery is a vegetarian restaurant.

Sanxing Dui Bowuguan
This museum located 40 km to the north of Chengdu is modern and spiral shaped. The museum opened its doors in 1997 and it contains exhibits of ancient sculptures, masks and bronzes. These relics were discovered in 1986 and controversy reigns until date about their origin. The collection hassome magnificent pieces such as bronze figurines, which port masks, made of pure gold.  A tour conducted in English is available to explore the wonders of the museum.  One needs about two hours to explore the museum and its wonders.

Sichuan Daxue  Bowuguan
The museum belonging to the Sichuan University has magnificent exhibits of carvings belonging to the Han and Tang dynasties, Daoist documents, vestments worn by the shamans from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, bronzes from the Ba and Shu regimes and even a shadow puppet theater.

Mao Museum
This quirky museum is a small exhibition hall with displays of memorabilia belonging to the Mao era. On display are 57000 badges and pins, busts, posters, photographs and magazines from the 1960’s . The owner of the museum Wang Anting claims Chairman Mao came to him in a dream. The museum is packed with visitors on December 26, which is the late leaders birthday.

Wenshu Yuan
This Buddhist monastery dating back to the Tang dynasty has teahouses, which are a center of congregation for the local populace. Gaiwan Tea, a tea drinking style typical of the Sichuan province is served in these teahouses. The local people come to worship at the monastery on the 1st and 15th day of the lunar month as well as the 19th day of the second lunar month. The 19th day of the second lunar month is the day that there are celebrations held at the monastery commemorating the birthday of Guanyin or the Goddess of Mercy who is a popular deity in China.  The monastery has a number of wooden and stone statutes.

Thatched cottage of Du Fu
The residence of the famous poet of the Tang Dynasty Du Fu is now a museum. The poet lived here in this cottage for three and a half years and during this period he composed 240 poems.

Hotels
The Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza used to be the premier hotel of Chengdu but now the Sheraton hotel has usurped its position. The Holiday Inn is located near the city center and can be accessed at www.icohotelsgroup.com for availability and rates. The Sheraton with its warm and cozy ambience can be accessed for its rates and room availability at www.sheraton.com/chengdu. Catering to the needs of individual travelers and backpackers is a new hotel called the Traffic hotel with its popular Anchor Bar. This hotel can be accessed at www.traffichotel.com.

Restaurants
Chengdu’s delicious local fare can be sampled at a restaurant called Baguo Buyi. Here one can partake of the local delicacies such as green turtle stewed with Taro root, yecai ba ( steamed glutinous rice bread with wild vegetable) and the doufu jiyu( a tofu dish).

Shopping
Chengdu’s main shopping areas are Chunxi Road, Zongfu Road and Luomashi Area. This shopping district features malls, stores and supermarkets selling a wide variety of wares. Chief amongst these wares is the rich brocade fabric of Chengdu. Chengdu was once known as ‘Brocade city’ and as early as the Tang dynasty this rich opulent fabric was exported from here to Persia. Another famous product of this area is fabric embroidered with the famous Shu embroidery. This rich embroidery, which gives products embroidered with it an appearance of having been worked with Chinese ink, is used to embroider quilts, pillowcases, clothes and shoes. Lacquer ware, silver inlaid and bamboo products, pickled beef, jasmine tea are just some of the products, which are typical of this region.

This fishing town soon became a busy seaport and is now one of the largest cargo ports in the world—talk about development! Of course it’s strategic location helped in trading with the West. The name itself, which translates to ‘on the upper reaches of the sea’ tell of its coastal location on the banks of the Yangtze River, Asia’s longest river, in East China. Shanghai faces the East China Sea and has the Huangpu River running through the city, with the two major commercial centers of the city, Puxi and Pudong, on either side.

The city has seen its share of troubles, but has triumphed over them all to become the industrial capital of the People’s Republic of China. It is also the country’s most important cultural, commercial, financial and communication centers. The main language here is Mandarin or the local dialect Shanghaianese, which sounds similar to Japanese and unlike Mandarin has no tones. The city is a melting pot of cultures. The population is predominantly Buddhist or Taoist, but major ethnic cultures are represented.

Seven out of every ten visitors to China come to visit Shanghai and it is not difficult to see why. Shanghai is one of the best examples where East meets West. Rooted in Chinese tradition, the city could be mistaken for any western metropolitan with imposing modern architecture and well planned infrastructure. The Donghai Bridge, 32.5 km in length, linking mainland Shanghai to the Yangshan islands is the longest cross-sea bridge in the world.

Shanghai River

With a population of over 16 million people, the city is one of the most populated in the world. Shanghai enjoys more economic freedom than other Chinese cities. Its open policy attracts foreign investors, which in turn expands business opportunities inviting more expatriates and increasing consumerism. Local brands and fake items can be found along with top-of-the-line high quality international brands.

One of the most important commercial centers of the city is the Pudong New Area, literally meaning ‘the east side of the river’. It houses Shanghai’s stock market building, the Jin Mao tower that ranks as the fifth tallest skyscraper in the world, the imposing Oriental Pearl Tower, the city’s international airport and the first commercial magnetic levitation train (Maglev).

Harbor at Shanghai, 1875

On the opposite side of the river is Puxi. Old alleyways and houses are making way for swanky high-rise apartments, museums, theatres and malls. At one count there was estimated to be over 3,000 high-rise buildings in the city. The city is growing at such a fast pace that it is said to have one-fifth of all the world’s construction cranes!

Now preparing to host the 2010 World Expo, the city is once again preparing to transform and reconstruct itself. Major development changes are already underway but not at the cost of the environment. State-of the art urban structures are interspersed with green areas. The city wants to add the sobriquet of being a ‘green city’ along with its many names and live up to the slogan for the Expo ‘Better City—Better Life’. City planners are already working on an elaborate project of building an eco-city on the wetlands of Dongtan at the mouth of the Yangtze river. When completed, it would be the first such city in the world which would be self sustaining and would cause no appreciable damage to the environment.

Given its strategic location and importance, it is easily accessible from most places in the world. The city is well connected with the world with its two airports, Hongqiao and Pudong International airports. Needless to say, Pudong has the second highest traffic in China given the nmber of people it attracts. Shanghai also has two main railway stations, Shanghai Railway station and Shanghai South railway station that connects with the rest of the country for those inclined to take it a little easy and are not in any particular hurry. More than six expressways lead into the city from Beijing and cities around Shanghai although traffic concerns are a given.

Within the city too, it is relatively easy to get around. Given the sizable population, public transportation becomes key. Buses, taxis and the metro system are indispensable while commuting in the city. Another alternative, quintessentially Chinese, is to ride a bicycle.

The subway system is a faster way of covering the distances in the traffic-clogged city and is relatively inexpensive. You could even opt for a rechargeable Jiaotong Card if you plan to use the subway fairly often. The advantage is that the card can also be used to pay for bus, ferry and even taxi rides, The fare will be automatically deducted from the card and you could keep adding more denominations to it depending on the use. The city’s Pearl Mass Transit railway is aboveground and also a good way to commute.

If you prefer to take a taxi, always keep a business card of your destination written in Chinese so you could show to the cab driver since English is not understood by many, and even if you speak Mandarin there is always the chance of a confusion arising due to improper pronunciation or tone. Buses, again, unless you are sure of the bus routes, it is better to avoid them since they are less comfortable than the metros or taxis. So get on only if you have plenty of time to spare and a good sense of adventure.

Shanghai Dock

To take the city in its totality you have to explore every nook and corner which can only be done on foot.

Walk into the small shops, meet the locals and pick up a few souvenirs and oddities, but never forget to carry a map. If you are not one to take chances and would prefer to be pre-armed with as much information as you can, visit the China National Tourist Offices’ (CNTO) website www.cnto.org.

Cologne is the city which is famous for the origin of the Eau de Cologne or Klönisch Wasser which means water of cologne . It was created by Johann Maria Farina an Italian expatriate in the 18th century and named after his hometown which was Cologne. The fragrance was a runaway success. Wilhelm Mülhens, a merchant secured the rights to subsequently produce the fragrance at his factory at Glockengasse. His grandson later renamed the fragrance 4711 which symbolized the number given to the factory under the French occupation of the Rhineland in the 19th century. Today the fragrance is produced both by the eighth generation Farina family in Cologne as well as the company Maürer and Wirtz who acquired the brand in December 2006.

Like other German cities of Frankfurt and Leipzig, Cologne is also a center for Trade Fairs which are held at the fair grounds which include the state of the art Northern Halls. Some of the fairs held in Cologne are the Art Cologne Fair, Photokina, a fair showcasing the latest trends in the world of photography and the International Furniture Fair.

History
Cologne was founded by the Romans in 30 BCE. The city was given the status of a ‘Roman’ city in 50 BCE and it was renamed Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium.

The city was ruled in turn by Postumus, Marius and Victornius as the capital of the Gallic empire from 260 to 270. The Roman Emperor Constantine who converted to Christianity built a bridge over the Rhine in 310 and in 313 Maternus was elected the first bishop of Cologne. Cologne occupies an important locale for followers of the Roman Catholic faith and its famous Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archbishopric of Cologne. The Archbishop of Cologne occupied an important position in the hierarchy of the church in the middle Ages at the time of the Holy Roman Empire. In fact the city is an important pilgrimage destination as the Cathedral contains the relics of the Three Wise Men of the nativity fame.

The Second World War established Cologne as an important military command center for the Nazis as a result towards the latter part of the war it was relentlessly bombed by the Allies. This resulted in a mass exodus of the local population to the surrounding rural areas in order to escape this bombing. Earlier in the war, the Jewish population of the city had already been brutally annihilated by the Nazis. The main Jewish Synagogue of the city built by Wilhelm Schreiterer and Bernhard Below in1899,had been completely destroyed both by the Nazis as well as the bombing of the Allies ,it was rebuilt in the 1950s and it 2005 it featured in the papal visit of Pope Benedict XVI. The German born pope is only the second pope to ever visit a synagogue.

At the end of the Second World War the city had been reduced to a pile of rubble, many of the Romanesque churches and other important cultural landmarks had been destroyed.

The city was slowly rebuilt using the services of urban planner Rudolf Schwarz who helped to chalk out a plan for the development of a network of roads for Cologne in anticipation of projected vehicular traffic.

The most important road constructed during this time in the downtown area was the Nord-Süd-Fahrt (North-South Drive). Slowly over the years following the war the city was rebuilt and in time it saw its population grow. This network of transport infrastructure as well as the establishment of several media companies coupled with the success of the trade fairs saw Cologne prosper in the 1980s and 1990s. Media companies such as Westdeutscher Rundfunk(WDR) and Germanys largest private broadcaster RTL operate out of Cologne. The city has set up a Media Park to cater to the needs of these companies.

Climate
Cologne enjoys a temperate climate with warm summers, mild winters and rainfall all through out the year. The average annual rainfall received by the city is 760 millimeters with 50 and 75 millimeters being received every month. The mean daily temperatures in January are around 1°C (34°F) while in the summer months of July and August the mean daily temperatures are 20°C (68°F).

Hohenzollern Bridge, Cologne

Language
The people of Cologne speak a local dialect of German called Kölsche, but English is also spoken and understood in this city which is warm and welcoming of tourists.

Getting to Cologne

By Air
Cologne is served by the Konard-Flughafen (CGN) international airport. The airport is named after the former mayor of Cologne Konard Adenauer who was also the Chancellor of Germany. It is an important hub for several discount airlines that operate in Europe. The airport is shared by the neighboring city of Bonn which was the former capital of West Germany. The airport had large freight volumes as well. The Intercity Express train has a terminal in the airport on the Cologne-Frankfurt route. This provides a convenient link to the city of Cologne.

By Road
The city is very accessible by road due to the ring of ten highways that encircle it and provide important road links with the rest of the country and other areas of Europe.

Autobahns A1, A4, A3, A57, A555 are some of the motorways that lead to Cologne.

This road development in Cologne which began as early as the 1920s along with the development of other infrastructural facilities has enabled the city to become an important economic and trade center in Germany.

By Water
The Rhine has five ports on it and Cologne has the second largest inland harbor of Germany, this makes it extremely accessible by water as well.

By Train
The City is equipped with two major train stations the Köln Hauptbahnhof and Köln-Deutz. The year 2003 saw the completion of the high speed routes to Frankfurt and Paris via Brussels so Cologne forms an integral part of the high speed rail network of Europe.

Getting Around
The city of Cologne is not very big and is served by very efficient subway/tram and bus system called “KVB” (Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe).

This system serves Cologne and neighboring cities. The city is not very big and easily accessible on foot. An hour’s journey by tram and subway can take you around all the tourist sites. Tourists can buy is a Köln Welcome Card which offers a variety of discounts at various attractions. The card can be bought for durations of 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours. It has to be stamped in order to be validated .There is also a convertible bus called the Hop on and Hop off bus which is accessible to card holders and helps one chart out one’s own journey to see Cologne’s various attractions. The Subway/Tram system is called the U- Bahn. The Regional trains are called “S-Bahn” and these require tickets to be purchased at the station as not all trains have vending machines. Cologne also operates the ‘Call A Bike’ scheme which is operated with the help of a credit card which enables one to pick up and drop off a red and silver bike at any one of the points in the city.

Its importance is such that, Greeks often refer it as the country’s ‘co-capital’. Its treasures of surviving monuments have made the city a living museum of Byzantine art.

The city stretches over 12 km in a bowl formed by low hills facing a bay. The city stands at the head of the Thermaic Gulf. It was founded in 315 BC by Kassandros, King of Macedonia, and was named after his wife, Thessaloniki, sister of Alexander the Great. Greece covers 130,000 sq km and is located in the southeastern portion of Europe. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea on the south, the Ionian Sea on the west, the Aegean Sea on the east, and the north by Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Macedonia (formerly Yugoslavia). The country also includes a great number of islands.

Here, the influence of the east is more pronounced, not just in the food, but also in the relaxed lifestyle. Thessaloniki is a big city with an almost college town feel. The city’s strategic location on the Thermaic Gulf ensures brisk trade between Greece and the Balkans. The Roman emperor Galerius even made it the imperial capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire.

The old town was surrounded by strong walls that are among the finest surviving examples of city fortification that exist in the world today.

City Center of Thessaloniki, Greece

Historical Insight
Thessaloniki was first established in 316 BC by Kassandros who named it after his wife, Thessaloniki, half sister of Alexander the Great. The name literally means ‘Victory over Thessaly’. The Apostle Paul first brought the message of Christianity here in 50 AD and in 303 AD, Demetrius, a Roman officer died here in martyrdom becoming the holy patron of the city.

After Constantinople, Thessaloniki was the next most important city of the Byzantine Empire, and even today abounds with magnificent examples of Byzantine art and architecture. In the 15th century, the city became a refuge for Jews exiled from Spain until they were sent to the concentration camps during the Nazi occupation.

Thessaloniki became a part of the modern Greece in 1913, but was burned in 1917 which left around 70,000 people homeless and added to this mix was the influx of refugees from Asia Minor. The city came under a lot of pressure till it was rebuilt in the 1920s.

Modern day Thessaloniki is a lively city bustling with life and movement. Old houses, ancient structures and monuments and neoclassical buildings, stand alongside modern architecture. It is the place to experience the old and the new at the same time!

Archaeological Sites
The Arch and Tomb of Galerius, or more commonly known as the ‘Kamara’, is an ornate monument, made with a red colored stone, made to celebrate Galerius’ victory over the Persians in 297 AD. The archway was built in 305 AD and reliefs were sculpted depicting scenes from the battle. The Upper Town or ‘Ano Poli’, with its beautiful wooden houses overhanging the winding streets is a reminder of the Ottoman Thessaloniki. This area also contains some of the city’s oldest and most important churches.

Other interesting sites are the Roman market and theatre, Roman baths, the Kyvernion (former residence of the King and Queen of Greece), and the Nymphaion, a monopteral building. If you have some time to spare, do not miss the opportunity to visit Vergina, just 48 km from the city. It was the first capital of Macedonia and has extensive ruins including the tomb of Phillip and the summer palace of King Antigonas Gonatas.

Ancient Greek Gold Larnax, Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki

Churches
There are numerous churches to visit, if not for religious or spiritual purposes, then for their historical and aesthetical significance.

The Rotonda, or the Church of Aghios Georgios, is a domed building from the 4th century AD, which served as a Mausoleum for Emperor Galerius, and is now the church of Saint George. During the Turkish occupation it used to be a mosque and the minaret still stands as a reminder. The church is built upon former Roman and Greek pagan ruins.

The Church of Ossios David built in the late 5th century AD, is the chapel of the Latomos Convent, an early Christian church that still stands in the city’s Turkish quarter.

The church of Agios Dimitrios , was completely rebuilt in 1948 after it had been destroyed by fire. It is the most important church in the city, lying above the remains of the agora and the Roman Forum. It has three side-chapels, a museum, and underground catacombs that was once Saint Demetrios’ (the city’s patron saint) imprisonment chamber.

Some other churches that should be on every visitor’s list are the Crypt where St Demetrios was imprisoned, tortured and buried; Agia Sofia from the 8th century is a replica of the original in Constantinople; Panagia Halkeon , a cruciform church built in 1028 AD; Agia Ekaterini is a well preserved 13th century structure with magnificent frescoes; the Agfi Apostoli of the 14th century during the time of the Byzantine Pateologos imperial dynasty retains its olden splendor externally, and in its interiors as well; the Agios Nikolaos Orfanos is a 14th century church rich with frescoes; and the Profitis Ilias, built in 1360 upon the ruins of a Byzantine palace by the monk Makarios Houmnos.

Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki

Museums
The White Tower Museum takes you through the history and art of Byzantine Thessaloniki between 300 and 1430 AD. The White Tower of Thessaloniki (Lefkos Pyrgos) has been known by many names and is now home to the Museum of Byzantine Cultures. It was constructed in the 15th century and served as a defensive bulwark, an infamous prison, and even as a place of execution because of which it was also called the Bloody Tower! It has now been put to better use as a home to a collection of sculptures, frescoes, and other interesting artifacts that portray the history and culture of the city. The view from the top is stupendous.

The city has many more museums to offer for people who want to dig deeper into the essence of the city. The Archaeology Museum near the White Tower has great displays of sculpture from the archaic, classical and Roman periods; the museum of Ethnological and Popular Art displaying costumes and objects of the last 250 years of Greek national life and culture; the Museum of the Macedonian Struggle has exhibits from the years of local national resistance; the Gallery of Fine Arts showcases important works of Greek and foreign painters; and the Museum of Attaturk, the founder of modern Turkey who was born in Thessaloniki.

Often referred to as the cradle of western civilization and the birthplace of democracy, with a recorded history of over 3000 years, Athens is a sprawling city located on the Attica Basin of Greece. The city is half surrounded by scenic mountains like the peaks of Aegaleo, Parnitha, Penteli, and Hymettus – at least one of these peaks can be seen from nearly every street in Athens. The Kifisos and the Ilisos rivers flow through the city. Greece’s capital is named after the goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom.

Since ancient times, Athens has given to the world momentous cultural achievements – classical architecture, monuments, and pieces of art. Much of Athens was rebuilt in the 19th century after Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Athens is the centre of economic, financial, industrial, political and cultural life in Greece much like it was in the olden times – a center of the arts, learning and philosophy, home to Plato and Aristotle, Socrates, Pericles, and Sophocles.

The city still has remnants of its golden years evident through a number of ancient monuments and artworks, the most famous of all being the Parthenon on the Acropolis. Here you will also find many Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman monuments, that take you through the city’s history through the centuries.

Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896.

The Erectheum, Acropolis

History:
Athens is named after the Greek goddess Athena, the goddess of Wisdom. According to Greek mythology, Zeus, the ruler of the gods, had a contest between Athena and Poseidon to choose a patron for the city, and the residents chose Athena’s gift of an olive tree rather than Poseidon’s gift of a freshwater spring, and they dedicated their city to her and she became the ancient city’s divine protector. The main temple to Athena on the Acropolis, the Parthenon, also served as the city’s treasury and has been around since Neolithic times.

As early as 1400 BC, the Acropolis was fortified which was helpful since there was constant fighting among the Mycenaean Greeks. In the 9th century BC, surrounding areas, including the seaport of Piraeus, was incorporated into the city-state.

The monarchy was replaced by an aristocracy of nobles and the city was controlled by the Areopagus (Council of Elders), who appointed magistrates, or archons, who decided on all matters of the state. However, there was widespread discontent among the people with this system which led to a short-lived dictatorship by Cylon in 632 BC.

Continued political instability led to the imposition of the Draconian Code, named after an Athenian lawgiver Draco. This was a harsh set of laws that eventually brought about the appointment of Solon as chief archon in 594 BC. Solon established a council, a popular assembly, and law courts, encouraged trade, reformed the coinage, and invited foreign business people to the city. Although these reforms were not totally successful, they are considered to be the foundations of democracy.

In 560 BC, Pisistratus gained control of Athens, and he built a new temple of Athena on the Acropolis. He also sponsored many other public events and was very popular with the people.

During the Persian Wars between 490 and 479 BC, the Persian Empire sacked and nearly destroyed Athens. However, their victory was short-lived as the Athenian leader Themistocles defeated the Persian invaders at the decisive naval Battle of Salamis and after the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC the Greeks got back their independence. Themistocles, during his lifetime, tried to restore the city and built circuit walls around Athens and Piraeus. He also began construction of the Long Walls connecting Athens with the port, which was continued by Pericles.

During the time that Pericles was in office, he made great strides in bettering the city and his term is often called the Golden Age of Athens or the Age of Pericles. The Parthenon, the temple of Nike, the Erechtheum, and other great monuments were built during this time. He also developed the agora, which began to display imported goods from around the known world. Cultural advances were also made in the fields of theatre with great tragedies and comedies being produced in the Theater of Dionysus, below the Acropolis. With its democratic constitution and brilliant culture, the city came to be known as the school of Hellas.

Theatre of Dionysus and the Parthenon

The imperial ambitions of Athens, however, brought about the Peloponnesian War in 431BC with Sparta. The Spartans pillaged the surrounding countryside while Athenians held out behind their city’s walls. Athens was defeated and the victors imposed their leadership, and removed most of the city’s fortifications, including the Long Walls. Athens survived the war but had lost its empire and its democracy, and was left weakened.

A democratic coup against the pro-Spartan Thirty Tyrants restored democracy in Athens in 403 BC. However, after the defeat, many citizens saw a need to strengthen moral values and even put the great Greek philosopher Socrates on trial where he was forced to take his own life as he had questioned traditional ideas.

The city still continued to progress and in the 4th century BC, influential schools were founded by the philosophers Plato and Aristotle.

Once again though, Athens came under foreign rule, this time under Philip II of Macedonia, father of Alexander the Great, who won the Battle of Chaeronea and became the master of Greece. Then around 146 BC, Athens fell to the Roman Empire.

After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, Greece became part of the Byzantine Empire. The Christian Byzantine emperor Justinian I closed all pagan philosophical schools, thereby ending the city’s classical tradition. During this time, many of the city’s artworks were moved to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), and the temples became Christian churches.

Next came the Ottomans who gained complete control of Athens in 1458.
The Parthenon was converted into a mosque and in 1687 it was severely damaged when a Venetian bombardment ignited gunpowder that had been stored inside the building. In 1687, Athens was besieged by the Venetians, and the temple of Athena Nike was dismantled by the Ottomans to fortify the Parthenon. The following year Turkish forces set fire to the city. Ancient monuments were destroyed to provide material for a new wall with which the Ottomans surrounded the city in 1778.

From being one of the wonders of the ancient civilizations, the birthplace of democracy and many philosophers, to being ravaged, captured, and then restored to some of its ancient glory, the city seems to have come a long way, but it has never left its history too far behind.

History
The history of the evolution of Beijing can be traced back over 500,000 years. Beijing was inhabited by the “Peking man”, an ancestor of modern humans.This history of evolution has been marked by invasions by warlords and foreign powers, fires and the rise and fall of dynasties. Imperial dynasties established their rule with Beijing at the helm. These were the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). A total of thirty four emperors presided over the country and ruled the nation from Beijing. In 1911 the Qing dynasty was overthrown by a revolution and power was seized by the Nationalist party. This was followed by a series of power struggles between warlords and the Nationalist party until China was invaded by the Japanese in 1937. During the Japanese occupation the Nationalist party banished to Chongging which was the temporary capital of China until the end of the Second World War and the defeat of the Japanese.

Imperial Palace, Beijing

The Nationalist party tried to retake Beijing after the War but they did not succeed in their attempts for by then a full scale Civil war was raging in China. The Communists led by Mao Zedong came to power in 1949 and declared China as a ‘People’s Republic’ with a proclamation in Tiananmen Square. Mao’s rule saw Beijing stripped off its finery as temples and monuments were destroyed and the city’s walls were pulled down and in there place commemorative arches were erected. The rich Chinese culture and heritage was further destroyed in 1966 when Mao launched his Cultural Revolution. This chaos continued until 1979 when Deng Xiaoping came to power and launched a drive to modernize China by opening it somewhat to the world. Deng Xiaoping’s image was severely tarnished when in 1989 he brutally crushed a pro democracy protest of students who had gathered in Tiananmen Square. Censorship and the control of any opposition to the government continue until this day. China in its current avatar is a paradox. The country which is the world’s fastest growing economy has all the trappings of a Capitalist state operating under a Communist regime.

Climate
The best time to visit Beijing is in the spring and late autumn. Spring is usually dry though sand clouds from Inner Mongolia can blanket the city during this time.

The temperatures in Beijing rise significantly during the summer months. Summer usually arrives in Beijing in late May when temperatures hover around 30°C (86°F). As summer progresses the effects of global warming are felt the Chinese capital as well as temperatures here surge over 40°C (104°F). Summer lasts until August. In the winter months the extreme temperatures of Beijing can fall below freezing point to -20°C(-4°F).

Tourists desert Beijing in the winter and one can usually secure a good deal at the various hotels belonging to international chains during this time of the year.

Currency
The local currency is the Renminbi which is made up of the Chinese Yuan. The Chinese Yuan is made up of ten Jiao.

Language
The people of Beijing speak Mandarin in its original form. In fact Mandarin spoken here is called the Beijing dialect.

Getting to Beijing

By Air
The city of Beijing is served by the Beijing Capital International Airport which lies to the northeast of Beijing in the district of Shunyi located at a distance of twenty five kilometers from the center of the city. The airport is served by both international and domestic carriers. Fifty airlines serve Beijing’s international airport. There is an airport shuttle bus operated by the civil aviation authority which operates at a frequency of thirty minutes to downtown Beijing. The bus costs approximately 16 Yuan per person. There are also taxis available outside the arrivals hall. These taxis are metered but one can bargain with the driver, a trip by taxi to the city costs approximately 120 Yuan. Nan Yuan is another smaller airport located in the southern suburb of Beijing which is used primarily by China United Airlines for its domestic services.

It's business as usual

By Train
Beijing has excellent inter city as well as international train links. The city is well served by four railway stations. The Beijing Railway station is station for long haul and international train journeys. Trains from here go to Batou and Shanghai as well as international cities such as Moscow and Ulan Bator. The Beijing West Railway station is the largest station in Asia and serves regional routes including capitals and important cities in every province. The other stations of Beijing serve short haul routes to neighboring provinces. Tickets can be booked in advance. Passports and other travel documents are required to be shown when booking tickets.

By Bus and Road
The city of Beijing is well connected by a spectacular network of roads and motorways to the rest of China. There are nineteen bus stations in Beijing which operate a multitude of bus services to various cities in the country such as Chengde, Datong and Tianjin. Tickets can be bought in advance, at the station or even on the bus itself.

Getting Around Beijing
Public transport in Beijing though not as good as Shnaghai or Gaungzhou is efficient none the less. A tourist has a variety of options to get around the city. Taxis have an initial flag fall of 10 to 12 Yuan and this usually depends on the type of Taxi, the Xiali which is a mini cab service has a flag down rate of 10 Yuan while the more spacious Santana or Fukang services have an initial flag fall of 10 to 12 Yuan. The taxis in Beijing are metered but they also charge for the time spent idling in traffic and also a night surcharge. To facilitate a Tourist’s journey further there are special tourism trains which run from the four railway stations to tourist sites in the suburbs. The tickets for these journeys usually include the admission charges to these sites as well. Four subway lines provide an added convenience for traversing the city. These Subways run from 5am until 23pm. Tickets are usually between 2 and 6 Yuan. Public buses provide yet another mode of transport to get around Beijing. Tickets usually cost 1 Yuan for travel in a non air conditioned vehicle while they cost 2 Yuan for travel in the comfort of an air conditioned service.

Most of the buses are self service hence it is advisable to carry exact change for the bus. The Rickshaw service of Beijing costs more than the taxi service but it is wonderful way for a tourist to experience the old world charm of the city by exploring its nooks and crannies. Many hotels in Beijing also provide the tourists with the option of a bicycle rental to explore the hutongs( alleys) of Beijing.

The city recovered and developed rapidly after World War II, but was hit by a disastrous earthquake in 1963 which brought the city down. However, it survived that too, and now it is a modern city located on the upper course of the Vardar River. It is situated on a major north-south Balkan route between Central Europe and Athens.

Historical Overview

The region where Skopje is located now is believed to have been inhabited since at least 4000 BC according to remains of Neolithic settlements found in the area. The settlement might have been founded around the 3rd century BC by the Ancient Paionians, a tribe from the north of Macedon. In the 2nd century B.C. Scupi came under the Romans and during this period, the city flourished and became a major religious center.

An old bridge in Skopje

From 395 AD, the town was contested between many invaders— Bulgarians, Byzantium’s and Serbians. However, Skopje continued to thrive as a trading settlement but fell into decline after being hit by another devastating earthquake at the end of the 11th century. The town was conquered by the Serbs in 1282 and in 1346 it was named the capital of the Serbian Empire of Stefan Dusan.

In 1392, after the Serbian defeat in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Skopje was captured by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 500 years it was known by the Turkish name Uskub, capital of the Vilayet of Kosovo.

The medieval city was once again damaged by an earthquake in 1555, but it soon recovered and prospered. But no sooner had it recovered from its losses, in 1689 the city was burned by the Austrian general Piccolomini—supposedly to eliminate an outbreak of cholera, but more believably to revenge the Ottomans’ 1683 attack on Vienna. The fire raged for two days and except the massive stone buildings, the city was completely destroyed.

The city was a major centre of rebellion against the weakening Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans were expelled from the city in 1912 by the local Slavic population. The city was then captured by the Serbs, Bulgarians, and seized by Yugoslavian troops in 1944. It was stuck by yet another destructive earthquake in 1963 measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale. Eighty percent of the city was destroyed by the earthquake, and numerous cultural monuments were seriously damaged.

Old town, Skopje

In 1991 the Yugoslav federation broke up and Skopje became the capital of the independent Republic of Macedonia.

Sights around Town
All around the town, you can find sights and monuments full of rich history and heritage of this magnificent city. Here is a rough guide of the major crowd pullers around the town, but if you care to explore and dig a little deeper, you will find there are many more treasures lurking beneath the surface.

The Kale Fortress dominates the city. It was built of stone blocks from the ruins of the city of Skupi. From the 14th to 20th centuries, the Ottomans used the fortress as a military barracks expanding the number of towers to seventy of which just three survive today. The 1963 earthquake destroyed much of the fortress. The fortress is now a park and has a wonderful view on the city and the river Vardar. The eastern gate gives access to a high field surrounded by the ruins of the walls, of which the 120-m-long cyclopic wall is the oldest.

An ancient Roman aqueduct still survives to the north of the city, just 2 km north-west from Skopje. One of the stone bridges connecting both sides of the Vardar River dates back to the early 14th century. The aqueduct was built of stone and bricks, with 55 arches supported on massive pillars. Another more famous bridge is the aptly named Stone Bridge in the city square built in 1469 and is the emblem of the city today. It spans the Vardar River with 13 arches. The 214 m-long structure was built by the Ottomans just after 1450.

Since the city was ruled by the Ottomans, there are several mosques to be found here. The Mustapha Pasha’s Mosque stands out as one of the most beautiful buildings of Islamic architecture in Skopje. It is located on a hill facing Fort Kale and was built in the end of the 15th century. Mustapha Pasha was an eminent figure in the Turkish state during the time. His mausoleum is located by the mosque and the engraving on it shows him to have died in 1519. The inside of the mosque is mostly decorated with stylized plants and the walls of the praying space are covered with calligraphic inscriptions with the names of Allah, Mohammed and his followers, and quotations from the Qu’ran. The tall minaret made of cut stone makes the impressive structure stand out even more.

The Isa-Bey’s mosque was built as a will of Isa-bey after his death, according to an inscription here. Contrary to most mosques, this one has two domes and is covered in lead. It is truly a one-of-its-kind structure that shouldn’t be missed.

An old gate with an Ottoman mosque in the background

One of the newer attractions in the city is the Millennium Cross on the peak of the mountain Vodno. It stands at a height of 66 m and is one of the biggest crosses in the world, which can be seen from a distance of up to 30 km.

The Daut-Pashin amam was a Turkish bath was built by the grand vizier of Rumelia, Daut Pasha in the 15th century. In was originally used as a harem and later as a public bath. Today, it is an art gallery with works of many Macedonian icons from the 14th to the 19th century.

Kursumli An is a memorial of Mula Musledin Hodza, and has monumental, decorative walls with numerous domes in shape of pyramids. Today, the complex of the Museum of Macedonia is located within the Turkish bath. The yard is used for cultural functions during the summers.

Not far from the city, you will find the church of Saint Panteleimon, which was commissioned by members of the royal Comnenus family and completed in 1164. This region is famous for its frescoes, representing a pinnacle of the 12th-century trend of intimacy and spirituality. These murals have recently been restored to its original glory.

The Monastery of St. Panteleimon is located on 8 km from Skopje, in Upper Nerezi. The church is devoted to St. Panteleimon and was built in 1164.
On the walls of this church, you will find a gallery of masterpieces from the Bysantium period. In the yard, there are the palaces surrounded with high walls.

The St. Nikita Monastery was built in 1370 upon the foundations of an older church. The painting inside is the work of famous Macedonian woodcarvers, Mihailo and Eftihie. The walls of the church are adorned with their frescos, where saints are shown in their actual height. The compositions show the ‘Christ Miracles’, ‘The Secret Dinner’, ‘Curing of the Young Woman’, and other episodes from the bible, in a realistic way.

The St. Spas church was built around the 17th century upon foundations on an older church. Part of the frescoes on the southern side is from the original church from 16th century. In contrast to the relatively modest façade of the church, the iconostasis inside is truly spectacular, measuring 6 m high and 10 m long.

The Church of the Holy Savior huddles behind a massive wall with just the wooden bell tower sticking out. Steps lead down from the courtyard to the tiny church which was built here in the early 19th century on the ruins of an earlier church which fell victim to the fire of 1689; some of the old frescoes are still visible today. The church is known for its wood carvings, which are some of the best Macedonian carving craft around. The 19th century iconostasis carved in walnut, has biblical depictions as well as regional flora and fauna. Inside the compound there’s the grave of Macedonian revolutionary Goce Delcev in whose memory there is a small museum too.

The St. Kliment Cathedral is a modern Orthodox Cathedral building also known as the Ministry Temple, with Saint Clement of Ohrid as its patron. Built in 1972, the building consists solely of arches and domes. It has a massive chandelier hanging from the roof, which features a 70 sq m painting by Jesus Pantocrator. One of the eyes in the painting itself measures a massive 1.5 m!

On the left side of the river is the old Skopje bazaar where you will find small handicraft shops. The craftsmen can still be seen and the marketplace is always bustling with activity. Here, on the first floor of a 15th-century inn, the Bazaar Museum gives you an insight into Skopje’s importance as a trade town. Old photos and maps show the extent of the old bazaar, which once stretched all the way to the river Vardar. They also show the wealth of products that were manufactured or passed through the bazaar. What is remarkable is that the bazaar has barely changed at all through the ages. The museum is one of the few places showing photos of the city’s earthquake damage.

The City Museum is located inside of the remains of an old train station and features two collections—one offers a brief insight into life in the city before WWII, and some fine examples of ancient artifacts dug up in the vicinity. The pride of the museum is a 6000-year-old, 15cm-high clay statue titled ‘Adam from Govrlevo’, which was discovered in 2000. The statue is ranked among the world’s top 10 Neolithic artifacts, as it is perhaps the earliest representation of a human figure—with ribs, spine, belly button and an impressive erection!

The Contemporary Art Museum is housed inside a large, Polish-designed box! The 5,428 sq m museum is filled with fine examples of world art. Its permanent collection features over 3,000 pieces by artists from over 60 countries, and includes works by such greats as Picasso, LeWitt and Hockney.

Skopje was the birthplace of Mother Teresa and the Mother Teresa Museum is a small shrine to the great social worker, containing photographs, paintings, a model of her birth house and a prayer corner.

The National Museum is housed in a large white building with the main entrance hidden in the courtyard. Its ethnographic section has a stunning collection of instruments and traditional costumes, arranged by the region of origin in Macedonia and surrounding territories. There are also some women’s bridal costumes on display, weighing up to 40 kg. In the archaeological section there are rows and rows of pottery, jewellery, and statues, in particular, the clay fertility statue and the unique 6th century terracotta icons—the only one found in Macedonia and Tunisia. The museum also showcases priceless collection of icons, some dating as far back as the 11th century. Here you will see the famous Bogorodica Pelagonitisa icon from 1422, which was painted for the icon screen of the Zrze monastery and depicts a playful Jesus in the hands of his mother.